The Inn valley is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the ice ages with a typical terraced structure caused by erosion. Marmots live almost exclusively above the tree line as high as 2,700 m (8,900 ft). Among the many substances Celtic tribes mined was salt in areas such as Salzburg in Austria where evidence of the Hallstatt culture was found by a mine manager in the 19th century. Like the Alps as a whole, the Bavarian Alps as part of the Northern Limestone Alps were heavily influenced by the last ice age. [9], At these higher altitudes, the plants tend to form isolated cushions. Evidence of human habitation has been found in caves near Vercors, close to Grenoble; in Austria the Mondsee culture shows evidence of houses built on piles to keep them dry. [131] Farming and forestry continue to be mainstays of Alpine culture, industries that provide for export to the cities and maintain the mountain ecology. [73], Alpine plants such as the Alpine gentian grow in abundance in areas such as the meadows above the Lauterbrunnental. [9] A natural vegetation limit with altitude is given by the presence of the chief deciduous trees—oak, beech, ash and sycamore maple. Crossing the Italian-Austrian border, the Brenner Pass separates the Ötztal Alps and Zillertal Alps and has been in use as a trading route since the 14th century. [41] The list includes not only mountains, but also subpeaks with little prominence that are considered important mountaineering objectives. The Alpine region area contains about a hundred peaks higher than 4,000 metres (13,000 ft). Austria underwent a political coup that made it part of the Third Reich; France had been invaded and Italy was a fascist regime. [133], Cheesemaking is an ancient tradition in most Alpine countries.
[86] The high-altitude Alpine salamanders have adapted to living above the snow line by giving birth to fully developed young rather than laying eggs. Hannibal famously crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants, and the Romans had settlements in the region. The Lauberhorn is the more strenuous downhill race at 4.5 km (2.8 mi) and poses danger to racers who reach 130 km/h (81 mph) within seconds of leaving the start gate. The stress of the movement causes the ice to break and crack loudly, perhaps explaining why the mountains were believed to be home to dragons in the medieval period. Cities such as Milan depend on 80 percent of water from Alpine runoff. Edward Whymper reached the top of the Matterhorn in 1865 (after seven attempts), and in 1938 the last of the six great north faces of the Alps was climbed with the first ascent of the Eiger Nordwand (north face of the Eiger). [74] Writing about the gentians in Switzerland D. H. Lawrence described them as "darkening the day-time, torch-like with the smoking blueness of Pluto's gloom. For instance, the Sarca, the primary inflow of Lake Garda, originates in the Italian Alps. At the end of World War II the US Army occupied Obersalzberg, to prevent Hitler from retreating with the Wehrmacht into the mountains. Many passes are closed in winter. [33] Flysch deposits in the Southern Alps of Lombardy probably occurred in the Cretaceous or later. "High altitude biodiversity of the Alps and the Himalayas: ethnobotany, plant distribution and conservation perspective". In his commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil, the late fourth-century grammarian Maurus Servius Honoratus says that all high mountains are called Alpes by Celts. The most common bird is the alpine chough which can be found scavenging at climber's huts or at the Jungfraujoch, a high altitude tourist destination. [31] As the rising peaks underwent erosion, a layer of marine flysch sediments was deposited in the foreland basin, and the sediments became involved in younger nappes (folds) as the orogeny progressed. [79] The vegetation has changed since the second half of the 20th century, as the high alpine meadows cease to be harvested for hay or used for grazing which eventually might result in a regrowth of forest. The altitude and size of the range affects the climate in Europe; in the mountains precipitation levels vary greatly and climatic conditions consist of distinct zones. [139], The tourism industry began in the early 19th century when foreigners visited the Alps, travelled to the bases of the mountains to enjoy the scenery, and stayed at the spa-resorts.

The range continues onward toward Vienna, Austria, and east to the Adriatic Sea and Slovenia. [62] The height of the Alps is sufficient to divide the weather patterns in Europe into a wet north and a dry south because moisture is sucked from the air as it flows over the high peaks.

[4], Major mountain range system in Central Europe, "Alpe" redirects here. [13][14][15] To the south it dips into northern Italy and to the north extends to the southern border of Bavaria in Germany. [112], Charles VII of France ordered his chamberlain to climb Mont Aiguille in 1356. [46], In the Miocene Epoch the mountains underwent severe erosion because of glaciation,[30] which was noted in the mid-19th century by naturalist Louis Agassiz who presented a paper proclaiming the Alps were covered in ice at various intervals—a theory he formed when studying rocks near his Neuchâtel home which he believed originated to the west in the Bernese Oberland.

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